Venom Diversity of Indonesian Fauna: Composition and Biological Effects on Mammalian Systems

Abstract

Indonesia, as one of the world’s megabiodiversity hotspots, harbors a diverse range of venomous fauna across terrestrial and marine ecosystems, including reptiles, amphibians, invertebrates, and mammals. The venoms produced by these organisms exhibit considerable biochemical complexity, consisting of proteinaceous components such as phospholipase A₂ (PLA₂), three-finger toxins (3FTx), proteases, and metalloproteinases, as well as non-protein compounds including bufadienolides and paralytic shellfish toxins. These molecules are responsible for a wide spectrum of biological effects in mammals, particularly humans. In general, elapid snake venoms predominantly interfere with neuromuscular transmission, leading to paralysis, whereas viperid venoms are more closely associated with coagulopathy, hemorrhage, and tissue damage. Beyond snakes, other Indonesian fauna demonstrate distinct envenomation mechanisms. For instance, Komodo dragon venom has been linked to cardiovascular disruption, while envenomation by the slow loris is known to induce severe hypersensitivity and anaphylactic responses. In addition to these acute toxic effects, accumulating evidence suggests that venoms also play a role in modulating mammalian immune responses, including inflammation and cytokine release, although these aspects remain relatively underexplored. Given the complexity and diversity of venom components and their systemic impacts, this review aims to explore the composition and biological effects of venoms derived from Indonesian fauna on mammalian systems.