Ectoparasite Networks in Captive Ungulates: Implications for Disease Transmission and Anoa (Bubalus spp.) Conservation

Abstract

Ectoparasites play a critical role in animal health by reducing host fitness and transmitting pathogens, particularly in captive wildlife systems. However, a global synthesis of ectoparasite diversity in captive ungulates remains limited, especially for anoa (Bubalus spp.). This study aims to review the diversity of ectoparasites, host–parasite interactions, and associated disease risks in captive ungulates. A systematic literature review was conducted following the Population–Concept–Context (PCC) framework and PRISMA 2020 guidelines. Searches across major databases up to February 2026 yielded 1,251 records, of which 16 studies met the inclusion criteria. Five major ectoparasite groups were identified: ticks (Ixodidae), deer keds (Lipoptena spp.), mites (Sarcoptes, Demodex), lice (Haematopinus spp.), and biting flies (Stomoxys, Haematobia). Network analysis revealed that ticks had the highest centrality, acting as key connectors that link multiple host species to vector-borne pathogens such as Babesia, Theileria, Anaplasma, and Bartonella. In contrast, other ectoparasites showed higher host specificity and modular interaction patterns. Environmental conditions and enclosure management were consistently associated with infestation levels. These findings indicate that ectoparasite communities form structured ecological networks, with generalist parasites playing a central role in disease transmission. This study highlights the importance of integrated parasite monitoring and habitat management to support captive breeding and conservation of the anoa.